Executive Functions and Improvement of Thinking: An Intervention Program to Enhance Deductive Reasoning Abilities.

Empirical and theoretical advances and application to society are moved at different speed. Application work is frequently developed later because it requires the integration of knowledge from different research areas. In the present paper, we integrate literature coming from diverse areas of research in order to design a deductive reasoning intervention, based on the involved executive functions. Executive functions include working memory (WM)'s online executive processes and other off-line functions such as task revising and planning. Deductive reasoning is a sequential thinking process driven by reasoners' meta-deductive knowledge and goals that requires the construction and manipulation of representations. We present a new theoretical view about the relationship between executive function and higher-level thinking, a critical analysis of the possibilities and limitations of cognitive training, and a metacognitive training procedure on executive functions to improve deductive reasoning. This procedure integrates direct instruction on deduction and meta-deductive concepts (consistency, necessity) and strategies (search for counterexamples and exhaustivity), together with the simultaneous training of WM and executive functions involved: Focus and switch attention, update WM representations, inhibit and revise intuitive responses, and control the emotional stress yielded by tasks. Likewise, it includes direct training of some complex WM tasks that demands people to carry out similar cognitive assignment than deduction. Our training program would be included in the school curriculum and attempts not only to improve deductive reasoning in experimental tasks, but also to increase students' ability to uncover fallacies in discourse, to automatize some basic logical skills, and to be able to use logical intuitions.

The role of working memory updating, inhibition, fluid intelligence, and reading comprehension in explaining differences between consistent and inconsistent arithmetic word-problem-solving performance.

Children's performance in arithmetic word problems (AWPs) predicts their academic success and their future employment and earnings in adulthood. Understanding the nature and difficulties of interpreting and solving AWPs is important for theoretical, educational, and social reasons. We investigated the relation between primary school children's performance in different types of AWPs and their basic cognitive abilities (reading comprehension, fluid intelligence, inhibition, and updating processes). The study involved 182 fourth- and fifth-graders. Participants were administered an AWP-solving task and other tasks assessing fluid intelligence, reading comprehension, inhibition, and updating. The AWP-solving task included comparison problems incorporating either the adverb more than or the adverb less than, which demand consistent or inconsistent operations of addition or subtraction. The results showed that consistent problems were easier than inconsistent problems. Efficiency in solving inconsistent problems is related to inhibition and updating. Moreover, our results seem to indicate that the consistency effect is related to updating processes' efficiency. Path analyses showed that reading comprehension was the most important predictor of AWP-solving accuracy. Moreover, both executive functions-updating and inhibition-had a distinct and significant effect on AWP accuracy. Fluid intelligence had both direct and indirect effects, mediated by reading comprehension, on the overall measure of AWP performance. These domain-general factors are important factors in explaining children's performance in solving consistent and inconsistent AWPs.

Executive Functions and Improvement of Thinking: An Intervention Program to Enhance Deductive Reasoning Abilities

Empirical and theoretical advances and application to society are moved at different speed. Application work is frequently developed later because it requires the integration of knowledge from different research areas. In the present paper, we integrate literature coming from diverse areas of research in order to design a deductive reasoning intervention, based on the involved executive functions. Executive functions include working memory (WM)’s online executive processes and other off-line functions such as task revising and planning. Deductive reasoning is a sequential thinking process driven by reasoners’ meta-deductive knowledge and goals that requires the construction and manipulation of representations. We present a new theoretical view about the relationship between executive function and higher-level thinking, a critical analysis of the possibilities and limitations of cognitive training, and a metacognitive training procedure on executive functions to improve deductive reasoning. This procedure integrates direct instruction on deduction and meta-deductive concepts (consistency, necessity) and strategies (search for counterexamples and exhaustivity), together with the simultaneous training of WM and executive functions involved: Focus and switch attention, update WM representations, inhibit and revise intuitive responses, and control the emotional stress yielded by tasks. Likewise, it includes direct training of some complex WM tasks that demands people to carry out similar cognitive assignment than deduction. Our training program would be included in the school curriculum and attempts not only to improve deductive reasoning in experimental tasks, but also to increase students’ ability to uncover fallacies in discourse, to automatize some basic logical skills, and to be able to use logical intuitions. (AU)

¿El Retén Episódico de Baddeley es independiente del Ejecutivo Central? Una nueva medida del Retén Episódico / Is the Episodic Buffer of Baddeley independent of the Central Executive? A new measure of the Episodic Buffer

El Retén Episódico (RE) está tomando un creciente papel central en las explicaciones sobre el funcionamiento de la memoria operativa. De hecho, los últimos estudios de Baddeley y sus colaboradores sitúan al RE en el corazón del sistema de memoria. Recientemente la discusión también atañe a si este componente de la memoria operativa presenta una naturaleza independiente respecto a los recursos del ejecutivo central. Algunos estudios muestran como en tareas automatizadas, la construcción y mantenimiento de elementos almacenados en el RE no requieren de recursos desde el ejecutivo central. El presente trabajo pretende analizar esta cuestión para lo que se toman diferentes variables y se ha diseñado un nuevo test para medir el EB. En este test de doble tarea, la tarea secundaria consiste en la lectura de textos sencillos que contienen palabras ocultas. Los resultados muestran como a pesar del aumento del procesamiento debido al incremento de la longitud de los textos, no se produce un aumento en la carga demandada por el ejecutivo central, ni en la creación de los agrupamientos de información ni en su mantenimiento. Es por ello, que pensamos que el RE bajo ciertas circunstancias es independiente del ejecutivo central

The Episodic Buffer (EB) is taking a growing central role in explanations regarding the functioning of working memory. In fact, in the most recent studies by Baddeley and his collaborators, the EB has situated itself at the core of this memory system. Recently, the discussion also concerns whether this component of working memory seems to demonstrate an independent nature with respect to central executive resourcing. Some studies show that in automatic tasks the creation and maintenance of elements stored in the episodic buffer do not require resources from the central executive. The current work attempts to evaluate this assumption for what different variables are taken and a new test has been developed to measure the EB. In this double task test, the processing task consists of reading short simple texts that contain missing words. The results show that further processing due to increasing the length of the texts does not correspond to higher load demands made on the central executive, nor in the creation of chunks or their maintenance. Thus, we think that the EB is under certain circumstances independent of the central executive

The relationship of counterfactual reasoning and false belief understanding: the role of prediction and explanation tasks

The relation between the prediction and explanation of the false belief task (FBT) with counterfactual reasoning (CFR) was explored. Fifty eight 3-5 year-olds received a prediction or an explanation FBT, a belief attribution task and some counterfactual questions of increasing difficulty. Linguistic comprehension was also controlled. CFR highly predicted FBT in the explanation version but not in the prediction one. Additionally, results in the explanation version indicate that CFR underlies achievements prior to the understanding of the representational mind and stimulates the explicitness of the mental domain. This study identifies the conditions under which CFR becomes a fundamental cognitive tool for social cognition. The results obtained contribute to the dialog between the two major theoretical approaches: theory-theory and simulation theory

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Inhibitory mechanism of the matching heuristic in syllogistic reasoning.

A number of heuristic-based hypotheses have been proposed to explain how people solve syllogisms with automatic processes. In particular, the matching heuristic employs the congruency of the quantifiers in a syllogism­by matching the quantifier of the conclusion with those of the two premises. When the heuristic leads to an invalid conclusion, successful solving of these conflict problems requires the inhibition of automatic heuristic processing. Accordingly, if the automatic processing were based on processing the set of quantifiers, no semantic contents would be inhibited. The mental model theory, however, suggests that people reason using mental models, which always involves semantic processing. Therefore, whatever inhibition occurs in the processing implies the inhibition of the semantic contents. We manipulated the validity of the syllogism and the congruency of the quantifier of its conclusion with those of the two premises according to the matching heuristic. A subsequent lexical decision task (LDT) with related words in the conclusion was used to test any inhibition of the semantic contents after each syllogistic evaluation trial. In the LDT, the facilitation effect of semantic priming diminished after correctly solved conflict syllogisms (match-invalid or mismatch-valid), but was intact after no-conflict syllogisms. The results suggest the involvement of an inhibitory mechanism of semantic contents in syllogistic reasoning when there is a conflict between the output of the syntactic heuristic and actual validity. Our results do not support a uniquely syntactic process of syllogistic reasoning but fit with the predictions based on mental model theory.

Comprensión lectora y procesos ejecutivos de la memoria operativa / Reading comprehension and working memory's executive processes

En el presente trabajo se estudiaron las relaciones entre los procesos ejecutivos de la memoria operativa, lainteligencia fluida y la comprensión lectora en una muestra de 77 escolares de 3º de Educación Primaria.Asimismo, se analizó la capacidad predictiva de la MO y de la inteligencia fluida con respecto al rendimientoen comprensión lectora. Como se predijo, los resultados mostraron un patrón de correlaciones positivasy significativas: las medidas de comprensión lectora -en particular, inferencias e integración- correlacionaroncon las medidas de los procesos ejecutivos de la MO y de inteligencia fluida. Los análisis de regresiónmostraron que las habilidades cognitivas de alto nivel -actualización semántica en la MO e inteligenciafluida- contribuyen de manera independiente a explicar el 33 % de la varianza en comprensión lectora

The aim of this paper is focused on the relationship of executive processes of working memory and fluidintelligence with reading comprehension, in a group of 77 third-grade primary students. Moreover, westudied the predictive capacity of working memory and fluid intelligence on reading comprehension. Aspredicted, there was a pattern of positive and significant correlations: reading comprehension measures -particularly, inferences and integration- correlated with working memory´s executive processes and fluidintelligence measures. Regression analyses showed that this highest cognitive variables -particularly,semantic updating in working memory, and intelligence- contributed independently to explain a relevantamount of the variance ( 33 %) in reading comprehension measures

A predictive study of reading comprehension in third-grade Spanish students / Estudio predictivo de la comprensión lectora en estudiantes españoles de tercero de Primaria

The study of the contribution of language and cognitive skills to reading comprehension is an important goal of current reading research. However, reading comprehension is not easily assessed by a single instrument, as different comprehension tests vary in the type of tasks used and in the cognitive demands required. Method: This study examines the contribution of basic language and cognitive skills (decoding, word recognition, reading speed, verbal and nonverbal intelligence and working memory) to reading comprehension, assessed by two tests utilizing various tasks that require different skill sets in third-grade Spanish speaking students. Results: Linguistic and cognitive abilities predicted reading comprehension. A measure of reading speed (the reading time of pseudo-words) was the best predictor of reading comprehension when assessed by the PROLEC-R test. However, measures of word recognition (the orthographic choice task) and verbal working memory were the best predictors of reading comprehension when assessed by means of the DARC test. Conclusion: These results show, on the one hand, that reading speed and word recognition are better predictors of Spanish language comprehension than reading accuracy. On the other, the reading comprehension test applied here serves as a critical variable when analyzing and interpreting results regarding this topic (AU)

Antecedentes: el estudio de la contribución de habilidades lingüísticas y cognitivas a la comprensión lectora es un objetivo relevante de la investigación actual de la lectura. Sin embargo, la comprensión lectora no es fácilmente explicada ni medida por una única prueba ya que los diferentes test de comprensión varían en el tipo de tareas utilizadas y en las demandas cognitivas requeridas. Método: el presente estudio examina la contribución de habilidades lingüísticas y cognitivas (decodificación, reconocimiento de palabras, velocidad lectora, inteligencia verbal y no verbal y memoria de trabajo) a la comprensión lectora, evaluada por dos test que utilizan diferentes tareas y requieren diferentes habilidades. Resultados: la medida de velocidad en pseudopalabras predijo la comprensión evaluada por el test PROLEC-R. Sin embargo, la medida de reconocimiento de palabras (la tarea de elección ortográfica) y la medida de memoria de trabajo verbal predijeron la comprensión medida por el test DARC. Conclusiones: estos resultados muestran, por un lado, que la velocidad lectora y el reconocimiento de palabras son mejores predictores de la comprensión en español que la precisión lectora, y por el otro, que el test de comprensión lectora utilizado es una variable crítica cuando analizamos e interpretamos resultados sobre este tema (AU)

A predictive study of reading comprehension in third-grade Spanish students.

BACKGROUND: The study of the contribution of language and cognitive skills to reading comprehension is an important goal of current reading research. However, reading comprehension is not easily assessed by a single instrument, as different comprehension tests vary in the type of tasks used and in the cognitive demands required. METHOD: This study examines the contribution of basic language and cognitive skills (decoding, word recognition, reading speed, verbal and nonverbal intelligence and working memory) to reading comprehension, assessed by two tests utilizing various tasks that require different skill sets in third-grade Spanish-speaking students. RESULTS: Linguistic and cognitive abilities predicted reading comprehension. A measure of reading speed (the reading time of pseudo-words) was the best predictor of reading comprehension when assessed by the PROLEC-R test. However, measures of word recognition (the orthographic choice task) and verbal working memory were the best predictors of reading comprehension when assessed by means of the DARC test. CONCLUSION: These results show, on the one hand, that reading speed and word recognition are better predictors of Spanish language comprehension than reading accuracy. On the other, the reading comprehension test applied here serves as a critical variable when analyzing and interpreting results regarding this topic.

Knowledge and question asking / Conocimiento y formulación de preguntas

The ability and the motivation for question asking are, or should be, some of the most important aims of education. Unfortunately, students neither ask many questions, nor good ones. The present paper is about the capacity of secondary school pupils for asking questions and how this activity depends on prior knowledge. To examine this, we use texts containing different levels of information about a specific topic: biodiversity. We found a positive relationship between the amount of information provided and the number of questions asked about the texts, supporting the idea that more knowledgeable people ask more questions. Some students were warned that there would be an exam after the reading, and this led to a diminishing number of questions asked, and yet this still did not significantly improve their exam scores. In such a case, it seems that reading was more concerned with immediacy, hindering critical thinking and the dialog between their previous ideas and the new information. Thus, question asking seems to be influenced not only by the amount of knowledge, but also by the reader’s attitude towards the information (AU)

La capacidad y la motivación para preguntar son, o deberían ser, algunas de las metas más importantes de la educación. Por desgracia, los estudiantes no suelen hacer muchas ni buenas preguntas. El presente trabajo analiza la capacidad para preguntar en alumnos y alumnas de Educación Secundaria y su dependencia del conocimiento previo, utilizando para ello textos con diferentes niveles de información sobre un tema específico: la biodiversidad. Hemos encontrado una relación positiva entre la cantidad de información proporcionada y el número de preguntas realizado sobre los textos, apoyando este resultado la idea de que las personas con más conocimiento preguntan más. Algunos estudiantes fueron advertidos de que habría un examen después de la lectura de los textos, y esto llevó a una disminución del número de preguntas que hicieron, aunque no tuvo influencia en su desempeño en ese examen. Parece que la lectura en ese caso estuvo más orientada a lo inmediato, dificultando el pensamiento crítico y el diálogo entre sus ideas previas y la nueva información. Por tanto, la formulación de preguntas parece estar influenciada, tanto por la cantidad de conocimiento, como por la actitud del lector hacia la información (AU)

Knowledge and question asking.

The ability and the motivation for question asking are, or should be, some of the most important aims of education. Unfortunately, students neither ask many questions, nor good ones. The present paper is about the capacity of secondary school pupils for asking questions and how this activity depends on prior knowledge. To examine this, we use texts containing different levels of information about a specific topic: biodiversity. We found a positive relationship between the amount of information provided and the number of questions asked about the texts, supporting the idea that more knowledgeable people ask more questions. Some students were warned that there would be an exam after the reading, and this led to a diminishing number of questions asked, and yet this still did not significantly improve their exam scores. In such a case, it seems that reading was more concerned with immediacy, hindering critical thinking and the dialog between their previous ideas and the new information. Thus, question asking seems to be influenced not only by the amount of knowledge, but also by the reader's attitude towards the information.

Componentes cognitivos que favorecen la adaptación social en la infancia: prevención del bullying desde la educación infantil / Cognitive components that contribute to social adaptation in children: prevention of bullying from pre-school education

El estudio trata la repercusión de diversos elementos de la cognición en la adaptación social de los niños 3 de 5 años, constituyendo las conductas agresivas un elemento crucial en su evaluación. El estudio contempla variables de naturaleza social y otras más cognitivas, que se evaluan mediante una entrevista semiestructurada, el estatus sociometrico, un listado de atributos positivos y negativos que recoge la percepción de los niños de sus iguales, y un cuestionario acerca de las conductas agresivas de los niños. Los resultados ponen de relieve la necesidad de considerar la cognición social, en particular, el conocimiento infantil sobre cómo resolver conflictos interpersonales, y el razonamiento contrafáctico como factores importantes en la explicación de la conducta agresiva. Se discute, en función de los resultados, el diseño de estrategias de intervención focalizadas en la mejora de estos aspectos de la cognición social (AU)

This paper addresses the study of the influence of several cognitive elements on social adaptation in 3-5 years old children. Aggressive behaviours constitute a crucial element in the assessment of social adaptation process. The study considers some social and cognitive variables which are evaluated by a halfstructured interview, sociometric analyses, a checklist of positive and negative attributes to know the perceptions children held about their peers were employed, and a questionnaire about aggressive behaviours completed by teachers. The results showed the importance of considering social cognition in explaining aggressive behaviour. Specifically, children’s knowledge about how to solve interpersonal conflicts, and their ability to reason in a counterfactual way. According to the results, it would be necessary to design intervention strategies focused on the improvement of these aspects of social cognition (AU)